Examination material in handwriting examination using the graphic comparative method

Questioned material is a fundamental element of a handwriting examination. It is the handwritten entry whose authorship is being established in the evidentiary process. Unlike reference material, questioned material is usually produced outside the control of the procedural authorities and the expert. In practice, this means that its form, quality and range of graphic features depend entirely on the person who made the entry (Całkiewicz, 2009).

In many cases, questioned material is created before criminal or civil proceedings begin. It can take various forms, from signatures on official documents and writing on contracts to handwritten notes or letters. In each case, the expert must assess whether the writing contains enough graphic characteristics to allow identification examination.

Particular attention is given to shortened signatures, often referred to as initials or abbreviated signatures. A signature may be highly simplified and lack enough individual features to identify its writer. In such situations, the expert may conclude that the questioned material has negligible identification value and does not permit comparative examination (Całkiewicz, 2009).

In practice, some signatures take the form of highly simplified graphic marks, such as short wavy lines or marks resembling a single letter. Such writing does not contain enough individual characteristics for comparative analysis. Consequently, the expert is required to state in the opinion the limitations arising from the nature of the questioned material.

From the perspective of handwriting examination methodology, questioned material should be analysed primarily for individual features such as character formation, writing movement dynamics, proportions of handwriting elements and the nature of connections between letters. The more such features the material contains, the greater its identification value.

The second basic component of examination material is reference material. It consists of handwriting samples from the person whose authorship of the entry is being examined. This material serves as a standard for determining whether the graphic features in the questioned material correspond to that person’s handwriting features (Całkiewicz, 2009).

Reference material may come from different sources. The literature primarily distinguishes naturally occurring reference material from reference material obtained experimentally. The former consists of documents created by the person concerned in everyday activities; the latter is produced through specially conducted procedural actions to obtain handwriting samples.

A significant advantage of naturally occurring material is its authenticity. Entries are produced in natural conditions and reflect the person’s actual way of writing. On the other hand, they may be difficult to obtain or may not always match the nature of the questioned material.

Requested samples obtained during procedural activities, in turn, provide handwriting samples meeting specified conditions. The expert can ensure an appropriate number of samples, repeated writing and conditions similar to those in which the questioned material was produced.

However, it should be remembered that requested samples carry a risk of deliberate handwriting modification by the person being examined. That person may try to change their writing to hinder identification. For this reason, handwriting examination practice recommends using both naturally occurring material and requested samples.

Appropriate selection of comparison material is fundamental to the reliability of a handwriting opinion. The literature identifies a range of criteria that should be met when collecting handwriting samples.

Above all, comparison material should be comparable to the questioned material in the type of writing. This means that signature examinations require signature samples, while analysis of handwritten text requires appropriate passages of continuous handwriting.

The number of samples is also important. Too few pieces of writing may make it impossible to establish a person's natural range of handwriting variation. Conversely, excessive numbers of samples obtained over a short period may produce unnatural writing because the writer is concentrating on the act of writing itself.

Another important criterion is similarity in the conditions in which the writing was produced. Where possible, reference material should have been created using a similar writing instrument, on a similar surface and with a similar spatial text layout.

Handwriting variability arising from physiological and psychological factors must also be considered. A person’s handwriting may change through fatigue, stress, illness or age. In some cases, it is therefore necessary to obtain handwriting samples produced at different times.